Claudius I Augustus 41-54 AD. Roman Imperial .DUPONDIUS

Description: Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus(/kldis/;Latin:[tbris klaudis kaesar austs grmanks]; 1 August 10BC 13 October AD54) was the fourthRoman emperor, ruling from AD41 to 54. A member of theJulio-Claudian dynasty, Claudius was born toDrususandAntonia MinoratLugdunuminRoman Gaul, where his father was stationed as a military legate. He was the first Roman emperor to be born outsideItaly. Nonetheless, Claudius was an Italian ofSabineorigins.As he had a limp and slight deafness due to sickness at a young age, he was ostracized by his family and was excluded from public office until hisconsulship(which was shared with his nephew,Caligula, in 37). Claudius's infirmity probably saved him from the fate of many other nobles during the purges throughout the reigns ofTiberiusand Caligula, as potential enemies did not see him as a serious threat. His survival led to him being declared emperor by thePraetorian Guardafter Caligula's assassination, at which point he was the last adult male of his family. Despite his lack of experience, Claudius was an able and efficient administrator. He expanded the imperial bureaucracy to include freedmen, and helped restore the empire's finances after the excesses of Caligula's reign. He was also an ambitious builder, constructing new roads, aqueducts, and canals across the Empire. During his reign the Empire started its successfulconquest of Britain. Having a personal interest inlaw, he presided at public trials, and issued edicts daily. He was seen as vulnerable throughout his reign, particularly by elements of the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position, which resulted in the deaths of manysenators. Those events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers, though more recent historians have revised that opinion. Many authors contend that he was murdered by his own wife,Agrippina the Younger. After his death at the age of 63, his grand-nephew and legally adopted step-son,Nero, succeeded him as emperor. Early life Bust of Claudius's mother,Antonia Minor Claudius was born on 1 August 10BC atLugdunum(modernLyon,France). He had two older siblings,GermanicusandLivilla. His mother,Antonia Minor, may have had two other children who died young. Claudius's maternal grandparents wereMark AntonyandOctavia Minor,Augustus's sister, and he was therefore the great-great-grandnephew ofGaius Julius Caesar. His paternal grandparents wereLivia, Augustus's third wife, andTiberius Claudius Nero. During his reign, Claudius revived the rumor that his fatherNero Claudius Drususwas actually the illegitimate son of Augustus, to give the appearance that Augustus was Claudius's paternal grandfather. In 9BC, Claudius's father Drusus died on campaign in Germania from a fall from a horse. Claudius was then raised by his mother, who never remarried. When his disability became evident, the relationship with his family turned sour. Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a standard for stupidity. She seems to have passed her son off to his grandmother Livia for a number of years. Livia was a little kinder, but nevertheless sent Claudius short, angry letters of reproof. He was put under the care of a "former mule-driver" to keep him disciplined, under the logic that his condition was due to laziness and a lack of willpower. However, by the time he reached his teenage years, his symptoms apparently waned and his family began to take some notice of his scholarly interests. In AD7,Livywas hired to tutor Claudius in history, with the assistance of Sulpicius Flavus. He spent a lot of his time with the latter, as well as the philosopherAthenodorus. Augustus, according to a letter, was surprised at the clarity of Claudius's oratory. Public life Claudius' work as a historian damaged his prospects for advancement in public life. According to Vincent Scramuzza and others, he began work on a history of theCivil Warsthat was either too truthful or too critical of Octavian,then reigning asCaesar Augustus. In either case, it was far too early for such an account, and may have only served to remind Augustus that Claudius was Antony's descendant. His mother and grandmother quickly put a stop to it, and this may have convinced them that Claudius was not fit for public office, since he could not be trusted to toe the existingparty line. When Claudius returned to the narrative later in life, he skipped over the wars of theSecond Triumviratealtogether; but the damage was done, and his family pushed him into the background. When theArchofPaviawas erected to honor the Imperial clan in AD 8, Claudius's name (now Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus after his elevation topater familiasof the Claudii Nerones on the adoption of his brother) was inscribed on the edge, past the deceased princes,GaiusandLucius, and Germanicus's children. There is some speculation that the inscription was added by Claudius himself decades later, and that he originally did not appear at all. When Augustus died in AD14, Claudius then aged 23 appealed to his uncleTiberiusto allow him to begin thecursus honorum. Tiberius, the new Emperor, responded by granting Claudius consular ornaments. Claudius requested office once more and was snubbed. Since the new emperor was no more generous than the old, Claudius gave up hope of public office and retired to a scholarly, private life. Despite the disdain of the Imperial family, it seems that from very early on the general public respected Claudius. At Augustus's death, theequites, or knights, chose Claudius to head their delegation. When his house burned down, the Senate demanded it be rebuilt at public expense. They also requested that Claudius be allowed to debate in the Senate. Tiberius turned down both motions, but the sentiment remained. During the period immediately after the death of Tiberius's son,Drusus, Claudius was pushed by some quarters as a potential heir. This again suggests the political nature of his exclusion from public life. However, as this was also the period during which the power and terror of the commander of thePraetorian Guard,Sejanus, was at its peak, Claudius chose to downplay this possibility. After the death of Tiberius, the new emperorCaligula(the son of Claudius's brotherGermanicus) recognized Claudius to be of some use. He appointed Claudius his co-consul in 37 to emphasize the memory of Caligula's deceased father Germanicus. Despite this, Caligula tormented his uncle: playing practical jokes, charging him enormous sums of money, humiliating him before the Senate, and the like. According toCassius Dio, Claudius became sickly and thin by the end of Caligula's reign, most likely due tostress. A possible surviving portrait of Claudius from this period may support this. Assassination of Caligula (AD41) On 24 January 41, Caligula was assassinated in aconspiracyinvolvingCassius Chaerea amilitary tribunein thePraetorian Guard and severalsenators. There is no evidence that Claudius had a direct hand in the assassination, although it has been argued that he knew about the plot particularly since he left the scene of the crime shortly before his nephew was murdered. However, after the deaths ofCaligula's wifeanddaughter, it became apparent that Cassius intended to go beyond the terms of the conspiracy and wipe out the Imperial family. Detail fromA Roman Emperor 41 AD, c. 1871. Proclaiming Claudius Emperor, 1867. In the chaos following the murder, Claudius witnessed theGerman guardcut down several uninvolved noblemen, including many of his friends. He fled to the palace to hide. According to tradition, a Praetorian namedGratusfound him hiding behind a curtain and suddenly declared himprinceps. A section of the guard may have planned in advance to seek out Claudius,[citation needed]perhaps with his approval. They reassured him that they were not one of the battalions looking for revenge. He was spirited away to thePraetorian campand put under their protection. The Senate met and debated a change of government, but this devolved into an argument over which of them would be the newprinceps. When they heard of the Praetorians' claim, they demanded that Claudius be delivered to them for approval, but he refused, sensing the danger that would come with complying. Some historians, particularlyJosephus,[14]claim that Claudius was directed in his actions by theJudaeanKingHerod Agrippa. However, an earlier version of events by the same ancient author downplays Agrippa's role so it remains uncertain. Eventually the Senate was forced to give in. In return, Claudius granted a general amnesty, although he executed a few junior officers involved in the conspiracy. The actual assassins, including Cassius Chaerea andJulius Lupus, the murderer of Caligula's wife and daughter, were put to death to ensure Claudius's own safety and as a future deterrent. As Emperor Aureusof Claudius, struck at theLugdunum(Lyon) mint, dated 4142. The depiction on the reverse meant to commemorate the "reception of the emperor" (imperator receptus) at the Praetorian Camp and the protection thePraetorian Guardafforded Claudius in the days following the assassination ofCaligula. Issued over a number of years in both gold and silver, these type of coins were struck to serve as part of the annual military payments Claudius had promised the Guard in return for their role in raising him to the throne. Caption: TI. CLAVD. CAESAR AVG. P. M., TR. P. / IMPER. RECEPT. Claudius issued thisdenariustype to emphasize hisclemencyafter Caligula's assassination. The depiction of the goddessPax-Nemesis, representing subdued vengeance, would be used on the coins of many later emperors. Caption: TI. CLAVD. CAESAR. AVG. P. M., TR. P. X. P. P., IMP. XVIII / PACI AVGVSTAE Pax-Nemesis standing right holding caduceus over serpent. Claudius took several steps to legitimize his rule against potential usurpers, most of them emphasizing his place within theJulio-Claudian family. He adopted the name "Caesar" as acognomen, as the name still carried great weight with the populace. To do so, he dropped the cognomen "Nero", which he had adopted aspater familiasof the Claudii Nerones when his brother Germanicus was adopted out. As Pharaoh of Egypt, Claudius adopted the royal titularyTiberios Klaudios, Autokrator Heqaheqau Meryasetptah, Kanakht Djediakhshuemakhet("Tiberius Claudius, Emperor and ruler of rulers, beloved of Isis and Ptah, the strong bull of the stable moon on the horizon"). While Claudius had never been formally adopted either by Augustus or his successors, he was nevertheless the grandson of Augustus's sister Octavia, and so he felt that he had the right of family. He also adopted the name "Augustus" as the two previous emperors had done at their accessions. He kept the honorific "Germanicus" to display the connection with his heroic brother. He deified his paternal grandmother Livia to highlight her position as wife of the divine Augustus. Claudius frequently used the term "filius Drusi" (son of Drusus) in his titles, to remind the people of his legendary father and lay claim to his reputation. Since Claudius was the first emperor proclaimed on the initiative of the Praetorian Guard instead of the Senate, his repute suffered at the hands of commentators (such asSeneca). Moreover, he was the first emperor who resorted to bribery as a means to secure army loyalty and rewarded the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard that had elevated him with 15,000 sesterces. Tiberius and Augustus had both left gifts to the army and guard in theirwills, and upon Caligula's death the same would have been expected, even if no will existed. Claudius remained grateful to the guard, however, issuing coins with tributes to the Praetorians in the early part of his reign. Pliny the Eldernoted, according to the 1938Loeb Classical Librarytranslation by Harris Rackham, "...many people do not allow any gems in a signet-ring, and seal with the gold itself; this was a fashion invented when Claudius Csar was emperor." Claudius restored the status of the peaceful Imperial Roman provinces ofMacedoniaandAchaeaassenatorial provinces. Expansion of the Empire Bronze head of Claudius found in theRiver AldeatRendham, nearSaxmundham, Suffolk (British Museum). Potentially taken from theTemple of ClaudiusinColonia Victricensisduring theBoudican revolt. Under Claudius, the Empire underwent its first major expansion since the reign of Augustus. The provinces ofThrace,Noricum,Lycia, andJudeawereannexed(or put under direct rule) under various circumstances during his term. The annexation ofMauretania, begun under Caligula, was completed after the defeat of rebel forces, and the official division of the former client kingdom into two Imperial provinces. The most far-reaching conquest wasthat of Britannia. In 43, Claudius sentAulus Plautiuswith fourlegionsto Britain (Britannia) after an appeal from an ousted tribal ally. Britain was an attractive target for Rome because of its material wealth mines and slaves as well as being a haven forGallicrebels. Claudius himself traveled to the island after the completion of initial offensives, bringing with him reinforcements and elephants. The RomancoloniaofColonia Claudia Victricensiswas established as the provincial capital of the newly establishedprovince of BritanniaatCamulodunum, where a largetemple was dedicated in his honour. He left after 16 days, but remained in the provinces for some time. The Senate granted him atriumphfor his efforts. Only members of the Imperial family were allowed such honours, but Claudius subsequently lifted this restriction for some of his conquering generals. He was granted the honorific "Britannicus" but only accepted it on behalf of his son, never using the title himself. When the British generalCaractacuswas captured in 50, Claudius granted him clemency. Caractacus lived out his days on land provided by the Roman state, an unusual end for an enemy commander. Claudius conducted a census in 48 that found 5,984,072 (adult male) Roman citizens (women, children, slaves, and free adult males without Roman citizenship were not counted), an increase of around a million since the census conducted at Augustus's death. He had helped increase this number through the foundation of Roman colonies that were granted blanketcitizenship. These colonies were often made out of existing communities, especially those with elites who could rally the populace to the Roman cause. Several colonies were placed in new provinces or on the border of the Empire to secure Roman holdings as quickly as possible. Judicial and legislative affairs Claudius personally judged many of the legal cases tried during his reign. Ancient historians have many complaints about this, stating that his judgments were variable and sometimes did not follow the law. He was also easily swayed. Nevertheless, Claudius paid detailed attention to the operation of the judicial system. He extended the summer court session, as well as the winter term, by shortening the traditional breaks. Claudius also made a law requiring plaintiffs to remain in the city while their cases were pending, as defendants had previously been required to do. These measures had the effect of clearing out the docket. The minimum age for jurors was also raised to 25 to ensure a more experienced jury pool. Claudius also settled disputes in the provinces. He freed the island ofRhodesfrom Roman rule for their good faith and exempted Ilium (Troy) from taxes. Early in his reign, theGreeksandJews of Alexandriasent him two embassies at once after riots broke out between the two communities. This resulted in the famous "Letter to the Alexandrians", which reaffirmed Jewish rights in the city but also forbade them to move in more families en masse. According toJosephus, he then reaffirmed the rights and freedoms of all theJews in the Empire. One of Claudius's investigators discovered that many old Roman citizens based in the city of Tridentum (modernTrento) were not in fact citizens. The Emperor issued a declaration, contained in theTabula clesiana, that they would be considered to hold citizenship from then on, since to strip them of their status would cause major problems. However, in individual cases, Claudius punished false assumption of citizenship harshly, making it a capital offense. Similarly, any freedmen found to be laying false claim to membership of theRoman equestrian orderwere sold back into slavery. Numerous edicts were issued throughout Claudius's reign. These were on a number of topics, everything from medical advice to moral judgments. A famous medical example is one promotingyewjuice as a cure forsnakebite. Suetonius wrote that he is even said to have thought of an edict allowing public flatulence for good health. One of the more famous edicts concerned the status of sick slaves. Masters had been abandoning ailing slaves at thetemple of AesculapiusonTiber Islandto die instead of providing them with medical assistance and care, and then reclaiming them if they lived. Claudius ruled that slaves who were thus abandoned and recovered after such treatment would be free. Furthermore, masters who chose to kill slaves rather than take care of them were liable to be charged with murder. Public works Claudius embarked on many public works throughout his reign, both in the capital and in the provinces. He built twoaqueducts, theAqua Claudia, begun by Caligula, and theAqua Anio Novus. These entered the city in 52 and met at thePorta Maggiore. He also restored a third, theAqua Virgo. He paid special attention to transportation. Throughout Italy and the provinces he built roads and canals. Among these was a large canal leading from theRhineto the sea, as well asa road from Italy to Germany both begun by his father,Drusus. Closer to Rome, he built a navigable canal on theTiber, leading toPortus, his new port just north ofOstia. This port was constructed in a semicircle with twomolesand a lighthouse at its mouth. The construction also had the effect of reducing flooding in Rome. The port at Ostia was part of Claudius's solution to the constant grain shortages that occurred in winter, after the Roman shipping season. The other part of his solution was to insure the ships of grain merchants who were willing to risk travelling to Egypt in the off-season. He also granted their sailors special privileges, including citizenship and exemption from theLex Papia Poppaea, a law that regulated marriage. In addition, he repealed the taxes that Caligula had instituted on food, and further reduced taxes on communities suffering drought orfamine. The last part of Claudius's plan was to increase the amount of arable land in Italy. This was to be achieved by draining theFucine lake, which would have the added benefit of making the nearby river navigable year-round. A tunnel was dug through the lake bed, but the plan was a failure. The tunnel was crooked and not large enough to carry the water, which caused it to back up when opened. The resultant flood washed out a large gladiatorial exhibition held to commemorate the opening, causing Claudius to run for his life along with the other spectators. The draining of the lake continued to present a problem well into the Middle Ages. It was finally achieved by the PrinceTorloniain the 19th century, producing over 160,000 acres (650km2) of new arable land. He expanded theClaudian tunnelto three times its original size. Senate Due to the circumstances of his accession, Claudius took great pains to please theSenate. During regular sessions, the Emperor sat among the Senate body, speaking in turn. When introducing a law, he sat on a bench between the consuls in his position as holder of the power ofTribune(the Emperor could not officially serve as a Tribune of the Plebes as he was apatrician, but it was a power taken by previous rulers). He refused to accept all his predecessors' titles (includingImperator) at the beginning of his reign, preferring to earn them in due course. He allowed the Senate to issue its own bronze coinage for the first time since Augustus. He also put the Imperial provinces ofMacedoniaandAchaeaback under Senate control. Claudius set about remodeling the Senate into a more efficient, representative body. He chided the senators about their reluctance to debate bills introduced by himself, as noted in the fragments of a surviving speech: If you accept these proposals, Conscript Fathers, say so at once and simply, in accordance with your convictions. If you do not accept them, find alternatives, but do so here and now; or if you wish to take time for consideration, take it, provided you do not forget that you must be ready to pronounce your opinion whenever you may be summoned to meet. It ill befits the dignity of the Senate that the consul designate should repeat the phrases of the consuls word for word as his opinion, and that every one else should merely say 'I approve', and that then, after leaving, the assembly should announce 'We debated'. In 47, he assumed the office ofcensorwithLucius Vitellius, which had been allowed to lapse for some time. He struck the names of many senators andequiteswho no longer met qualifications, but showed respect by allowing them to resign in advance. At the same time, he sought to admit eligible men from the provinces. TheLyon Tabletpreserves his speech on the admittance of Gallic senators, in which he addresses the Senate with reverence but also with criticism for their disdain of these men. He even jokes about how the Senate had admitted members from beyondGallia Narbonensis(Lyons, France), i.e. himself. He also increased the number of patricians by adding new families to the dwindling number of noble lines. Here he followed the precedent ofLucius Junius BrutusandJulius Caesar. Nevertheless, many in the Senate remained hostile to Claudius, and many plots were made on his life. This hostility carried over into the historical accounts. As a result, Claudius reduced the Senate's power for the sake of efficiency. The administration of Ostia was turned over to an Imperialprocuratorafter construction of the port. Administration of many of the empire's financial concerns was turned over to Imperial appointees and freedmen. This led to further resentment and suggestions that these same freedmen were ruling the Emperor. Plots and coup attempts Several coup attempts were made during Claudius's reign, resulting in the deaths of many senators.Appius Silanuswas executed early in Claudius's reign under questionable circumstances. Shortly after, a large rebellion was undertaken by the SenatorVinicianusandScribonianus, the governor ofDalmatia, and gained quite a few senatorial supporters. It ultimately failed because of the reluctance of Scribonianus's troops, which led to the suicide of the main conspirators. Many other senators tried different conspiracies and were condemned. Claudius's son-in-lawPompeius Magnuswas executed for his part in a conspiracy with his father Crassus Frugi. Another plot involved the consulars Lusiius Saturninus, Cornelius Lupus, and Pompeius Pedo. In 46,Asinius Gallus, the grandson ofAsinius Pollio, andTitus Statilius Taurus Corvinuswere exiled for a plot hatched with several of Claudius's own freedmen.Valerius Asiaticuswas executed without public trial for unknown reasons. The ancient sources say the charge wasadultery, and that Claudius was tricked into issuing the punishment. However, Claudius singles out Asiaticus for special damnation in his speech on the Gauls, which dates over a year later, suggesting that the charge must have been much more serious. Asiaticus had been a claimant to the throne in the chaos following Caligula's death and a co-consul with the Titus Statilius Taurus Corvinus mentioned above. Most of these conspiracies took place before Claudius's term asCensor, and may have induced him to review the Senatorial rolls. The conspiracy ofGaius Siliusin the year after his Censorship, 48, is detailed in book 11 of Tacitus Annal. This section of Tacitus history narrates the alleged conspiracy of Claudius's third wife,Messalina. Suetonius states that a total of 35 senators and 300 knights were executed for offenses during Claudius's reign. Needless to say, the responses to these conspiracies could not have helped Senateemperor relations. Secretariat and centralization of powers Claudius was hardly the first emperor to usefreedmento help with the day-to-day running of the Empire. He was, however, forced to increase their role as the powers of theprincepsbecame more centralized and the burden larger. This was partly due to the ongoing hostility of the Senate, as mentioned above, but also due to his respect for the senators. Claudius did not want free-born magistrates to have to serve under him, as if they were not peers. The secretariat was divided into bureaus, with each being placed under the leadership of one freedman.Narcissuswas the secretary of correspondence.Pallasbecame the secretary of the treasury.Callistusbecame secretary of justice. There was a fourth bureau for miscellaneous issues, which was put underPolybiusuntil his execution for treason. The freedmen could also officially speak for the Emperor, as when Narcissus addressed the troops in Claudius's stead before theconquest of Britain. Since these were important positions, the senators were aghast at their being placed in the hands of former slaves and "well-knowneunuchs". If freedmen had total control of money, letters, and law, it seemed it would not be hard for them to manipulate the Emperor. This is exactly the accusation put forth by the ancient sources. However, these same sources admit that the freedmen were loyal to Claudius. He was similarly appreciative of them and gave them due credit for policies where he had used their advice. However, if they showed treasonous inclinations, the Emperor did punish them with just force, as in the case of Polybius and Pallas's brother,Felix. There is no evidence that the character of Claudius's policies and edicts changed with the rise and fall of the various freedmen, suggesting that he was firmly in control throughout. Regardless of the extent of their political power, the freedmen did manage to amass wealth through their positions. Pliny the Elder notes that several of them were richer thanCrassus, the richest man of theRepublican era. Religious reforms Portrait of Claudius,Altes Museum, Berlin Claudius, as the author of a treatise on Augustus's religious reforms, felt himself in a good position to institute some of his own. He had strong opinions about the proper form for state religion. He refused the request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate a temple to his divinity, saying that only gods may choose new gods. He restored lost days to festivals and got rid of many extraneous celebrations added by Caligula. He re-instituted old observances and archaic language. Claudius was concerned with the spread of eastern mysteries within the city and searched for more Roman replacements. He emphasized theEleusinian Mysterieswhich had been practiced by so many during the Republic. He expelled foreign astrologers, and at the same time rehabilitated the old Roman soothsayers (known asharuspices) as a replacement. He was especially hard onDruidism, because of its incompatibility with the Roman state religion and itsproselytizingactivities. Public games and entertainments According to Suetonius, Claudius was extraordinarily fond of games. He is said to have risen with the crowd after gladiatorial matches and given unrestrained praise to the fighters. Claudius also presided over many new and original events. Soon after coming into power, Claudius instituted games to be held in honor of his father on the latter's birthday.Annual games were also held in honour of his accession, and took place at the Praetorian camp where Claudius had first been proclaimed Emperor. Claudius organised a performance of theSecular Games, marking the 800th anniversary of thefounding of Rome. Augustus had performed the same games less than a century prior. Augustus's excuse was that the interval for the games was 110 years, not 100, but his date actually did not qualify under either reasoning. Claudius also presented naval battles to mark the attempted draining of theFucine Lake, as well as many other public games and shows. At Ostia, in front of a crowd of spectators, Claudius fought anorcawhich was trapped in the harbour. The event was witnessed by Pliny the Elder: A killer whale was actually seen in the harbour of Ostia, locked in combat with the emperor Claudius. She had come when he was completing the construction of the harbour, drawn there by the wreck of a ship bringing leather hides from Gaul, and feeding there over a number of days, had made a furrow in the shallows: the waves had raised up such a mound of sand that she couldn't turn around at all, and while she was pursuing her banquet as the waves moved it shorewards, her back stuck up out of the water like the overturned keel of a boat. The Emperor ordered that a large array of nets be stretched across the mouths of the harbour, and setting out in person with the Praetorian cohorts gave a show to the Roman people, soldiers showering lances from attacking ships, one of which I saw swamped by the beast's waterspout and sunk. Historia NaturalisIX.1415. Claudius also restored and adorned many public venues in Rome. At theCircus Maximus, the turning posts and starting stalls were replaced in marble and embellished, and an embankment was probably added to prevent flooding of the track. Claudius also reinforced or extended the seating rules that reserved front seating at the Circus for senators. He rebuiltPompey's Theatreafter it had been destroyed by fire, organising special fights at the re-dedication which he observed from a special platform in the orchestra box. Death A statue of Claudius in the Wesgha tal-Muzew, Mdina, Malta The consensus of ancient historians was that Claudius was murdered by poison possibly contained in mushrooms or on a feather and died in the early hours of 13 October 54. Nearly all implicate his final and powerful wife,Agrippina, as the instigator. Agrippina and Claudius had become more combative in the months leading up to his death. This carried on to the point where Claudius openly lamented his bad wives, and began to comment onBritannicus' approaching manhood with an eye towards restoring his status within the imperial family. Agrippina had motive in ensuring the succession of Nero before Britannicus could gain power. Some implicate either his tasterHalotus, his doctorXenophon, or the infamous poisonerLocustaas the administrator of the fatal substance. Some say he died after prolonged suffering following a single dose at dinner, and some have him recovering only to be poisoned again.Among contemporary sources,Seneca the Youngerascribed the emperor's death to natural causes, while Josephus only spoke of rumors on his poisoning. Some historians have cast doubt on whether Claudius was murdered or merely died from illness or old age. Evidence against his murder include his old age, his serious illnesses in his last years, his unhealthy lifestyle and the fact that his taster Halotus continued to serve in the same position under Nero. On the other hand, some modern scholars claim the near universality of the accusations in ancient texts lends credence to the crime.Claudius's ashes were interred in theMausoleum of Augustuson 24 October 54, after a funeral similar to that of his great-uncle Augustus 40 years earlier. Divine honours Already, while alive, he received the widespread private worship of a livingprincepsand was worshipped inBritanniain his owntemple in Camulodunum. Claudius was deified by Nero and the Senate almost immediately. Views of the new regime Agrippina had sent awayNarcissusshortly before Claudius's death, and now murdered the freedman. The last act of this secretary of letters was to burn all of Claudius's correspondence most likely so it could not be used against him and others in an already hostile new regime. Thus Claudius's private words about his own policies and motives were lost to history. Just as Claudius had criticized his predecessors in official edicts (see below), Nero often criticized the deceased Emperor and many Claudian laws and edicts were disregarded under the reasoning that he was too stupid and senile to have meant them. Seneca'sApocolocyntosismocks the deification of Claudius and reinforces the view of Claudius as an unpleasant fool; this remained the official view for the duration of Nero's reign. Eventually Nero stopped referring to his deified adoptive father at all, and realigned with his birth family. Claudius's temple was left unfinished after only some of the foundation had been laid down. Eventually the site was overtaken by Nero'sGolden House. Flavian and later perspectives TheFlavians, who had risen to prominence under Claudius, took a different tack. They were in a position where they needed to shore up their legitimacy, but also justify the fall of the Julio-Claudians. They reached back to Claudius in contrast with Nero, to show that they were good associated with good. Commemorative coins were issued of Claudius and his sonBritannicus, who had been a friend of the EmperorTitus(Titus was born in 39, Britannicus was born in 41). When Nero'sGolden Housewas burned, theTemple of Claudiuswas finally completed on the Caelian Hill. However, as the Flavians became established, they needed to emphasize their own credentials more, and their references to Claudius ceased. Instead, he was lumped with the other emperors of the fallen dynasty. His state cult in Rome probably continued until the abolition of all such cults of dead Emperors byMaximinus Thraxin 237238.TheFeriale Duranum, probably identical to the festival calendars of every regular army unit, assigns him a sacrifice of asteeron his birthday, theKalendsof August.And such commemoration (and consequent feasting) probably continued until the Christianization and disintegration of the army in the late 4th century. Views of ancient historians The ancient historians Tacitus, Suetonius (inThe Twelve Caesars), andCassius Dioall wrote after the last of the Flavians had gone. All three were senators orequites. They took the side of the Senate in most conflicts with the Princeps, invariably viewing him as being in the wrong. This resulted in biases, both conscious and unconscious. Suetonius lost access to the official archives shortly after beginning his work. He was forced to rely on second-hand accounts when it came to Claudius (with the exception of Augustus's letters, which had been gathered earlier). Suetonius painted Claudius as a ridiculous figure, belittling many of his acts and attributing the objectively good works to his retinue. Tacitus wrote a narrative for his fellow senators and fitted each of the emperors into a simple mold of his choosing.He wrote of Claudius as a passive pawn and an idiot in affairs relating to the palace and often in public life. During his censorship of 4748 Tacitus allows the reader a glimpse of a Claudius who is more statesmanlike (XI.2325), but it is a mere glimpse. Tacitus is usually held to have 'hidden' his use of Claudius's writings and to have omitted Claudius's character from his works.Even his version of Claudius's Lyons tablet speech is edited to be devoid of the Emperor's personality. Dio was less biased, but seems to have used Suetonius and Tacitus as sources. Thus, the conception of Claudius as the weak fool, controlled by those he supposedly ruled, was preserved for the ages. As time passed, Claudius was mostly forgotten outside of the historians's accounts. His books were lost first, as their antiquarian subjects became unfashionable. In the 2nd century,Pertinax, who shared his birthday, became emperor, overshadowing commemoration of Claudius.

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